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Biology Letters. Prinz W. What re-enactment earns us. Poliakoff E. The effect of viewing graspable objects and actions in Parkinson's disease. Raichle M. Practice-related changes in human brain functional anatomy during nonmotor learning. Dragonfly wings also have loop networks, which makes them resilient to damage. Image: Marcelo Magnasco. To Build a Leaf When it comes to creating an efficient network, evolution must consider two factors: the cost of building the network and the cost of operating it.
For vasculature, this translates to the costs of making veins and pumping fluids through them. The cheapest network to operate is a simple branching tree structure, which is employed by some ancient plants. Though efficient, this structure is not very resilient. When a link is damaged, parts of the system suffer loss of fluid and die. To try to understand the topology of vein architecture, Katifori and Magnasco built a simple network model trying to capture its essential features.
They modeled the veins, called xylem, as a network of pipes with varying flow and pressure. Given limited amounts of pipe, they asked, how should the pipe be distributed to minimize drops in water pressure and to make the system as resilient as possible to damage? They found that an architecture of hierarchically nested loops — meaning loops within loops within loops — is most resistant to damage.
Striking videos of fluorescent fluid flowing through damaged leaves enabled the researchers to quantify how water flows around the site of damage. The researchers also found that loop networks can better handle fluctuations in fluid flow as environmental conditions change. Katifori and Magnasco are now modeling adaptive loop networks, which evolve in response to the changing environment and may be at play in fungi, slime mold and even the developing vascular system in animals.
Slime mold, for example, constantly changes shape, extending long fingers, often in the form of a loopy network, in search of food. In one striking experiment, Japanese researchers grew slime mold on a surface dotted with oatmeal flakes arranged to mimic cities around Tokyo. The blood vessels on the surface of the rodent cortex form a loop network, which enables blood to flow quickly to any region, even after minor damage. Image: Pablo Blinder and David Kleinfeld. Mapping Blood Vessels Efficient blood flow is an essential component of the function of the brain, which lacks an extensive mechanism for energy storage: Electrically active neurons must be quickly replenished.
As a result, the brain precisely regulates blood flow, increasing delivery to targeted regions. More than a decade ago, David Kleinfeld , a physicist and neuroscientist at University of California, San Diego, and collaborators discovered that they could monitor blood flow in individual capillaries in the rodent brain.
They found that blood flow often reversed direction, strongly suggesting that the network of vessels formed a looped structure. This arrangement enables blood to flow to a specific spot from all directions, which enables neurons in that spot to get the fuel they need. In , the researchers mapped out the vascular network covering the surface of the neocortex in rats and mice, the outer layer of the cerebral cortex. The researchers used that connectivity map to run a computer simulation of what happens when a single vessel in the network was blocked.
In both the model and the real brain, blocking a vessel in the two-dimensional lattice had little effect. The results jibe with a widely held theory that while we are awake, our neurons are constantly forming new synapses, or connections to other neurons, which ramps up the activity in our brain. Many of these connections are irrelevant, but the only way to prune them is by shutting down for a while. The theory explains why it is difficult to cram new information into a sleepy brain.
But it also helps to explain some unusual medical observations: epileptics are more likely to have seizures the longer they stay awake, and severely depressed patients with abnormally low brain activity sometimes improve after skipping sleep. Already a subscriber? Sign in. Thanks for reading Scientific American. Create your free account or Sign in to continue.
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